Metaphor and Metonymy, Jeannette Littlemore

Metaphor in everyday communication - Jeannette Littlemore

Why do metaphors work?

In the case of both metaphor and metonymy, we talk one thing in terms of another. However there is a difference between the two. Metaphor is an exchange of properties, while metonymy is an exchange of entities. Consider the following two sentences: (1) Kevin is bit of a monster (=scary, aggressive), (2) The White House (=government) announced new tax reforms. The first one is an example for metaphor, whereas the second one is an example for metonymy. 

Littlemore studies metaphor and metonymy in the following contexts:

1. cross-cultural communication; how metaphor and metonymy are used differently in different languages and cultures (emotions=heart/liver (Malaysia)); language learners (L2 speakers)
2. discourse communities
1. nursery - loose nappy(=for upset stomach0
2. sports - put him under Reese(=Reese’s coaching)
3. hospitals - room 121(=patient in the room 121)
4. military - 12 o’clock for direction, 
5. business - hedge funds, ring fencing, angel investor, unicorn, …
6. math and music education - high notes, low notes, thick notes, thin notes, ...
3. how people talk about their traumatic experience, difficult moments of life (sexual abuse, physical abuse, mental abuse, miscarriage, rape, accident, violence, loss of dear ones, depression, isolation, )
4. sexual health  - The objective was to use metaphor and wordplay to raise awareness on sexual health in indirect and humorous ways. e.g. going to touch wood; visit her spaghetti garden, exploring their botanical gardens, ...
5. advertising and branding -  Jaguar Cars (as sleek and fast as jaguars), Rolls Royce Phantom (as strong and powerful as the superman character Phantom), The Beast (as scary as a beast), 
6. gestures - they are useful in establishing cohesion in conversation by L1 speakers; to find the right words (esp. by L2 speakers); some are metaphorical and some are metonymic (roof gesture for house) and some are pragmatic; sign language; 
7. non-verbal communication -  metaphor and metonymy are common in verbal as well as non-verbal communication
1. the pair of glasses on the table for the teacher: metonymy because the teacher wears the glasses
2. handbag for Thatcher: metonymy because Thatcher used to have a handbag at public appearances
3. sickle for the working class: metonymy because farmers use sickle in harvesting crops; no transfer of properties
4. suit for the executive class: metonymy because corporate wear suits to meetings; no transfer of properties
5. thumbs up for good luck, V for victory: metonymy because it’s a convention
8. human-computer interaction - @MetaphorMagnet publishes metaphorical expressions generated by bots; how good are the metaphors (novelty, alliteration, Keats heursitic…)
9. embodied metaphor - metaphors that trigger physical, mental and emotional responses; interaction between metaphorical and the physical (e.g. importance ~ weight, similar ~ close); metaphoric associations such as LOVE is JOURNEY; e.g. I have had a rough day; I am trying to climb Mount Everest in flipflops.